1.1 本指南涵盖了使用X射线测试仪（即光子光谱具有 ≈ 10 keV平均光子能量和 ≈ 测试半导体分立器件和集成电路的电离辐射效应。 1.2 X射线测试仪可能适用于研究晶圆级或已脱层微电子器件对电离辐射效应的敏感性。它不适合研究其他辐射诱导效应，例如单事件效应（见）或位移损伤引起的效应。 1.3 本指南重点介绍金属氧化物半导体（MOS）电路元件中的辐射效应，无论是设计的（如MOS晶体管）还是寄生的（如双极晶体管中的寄生MOS元件）。 1.4 给出了用X射线测试仪获得的电离辐射硬度结果与用钴获得的结果的适当比较信息- 60伽马辐照。评估了由X射线和钴-60γ源的光子能量差异引起的辐射诱导效应的几种差异。本文对这些效应差异的大小以及在制定测试方案时应考虑的其他因素进行了定量估计。 1.5 如果将10 keV X射线测试仪用于鉴定测试或批量验收测试，建议通过交叉检查钴-60γ辐照来支持此类测试。 1.6 使用X射线测试仪获得的电离辐射硬度结果与使用直线加速器、质子等获得的结果的比较不在本指南的范围内。 1.7 目前对X射线和钴-60γ辐照引起的物理效应之间差异的理解用于提供比率（孔数-钴-60）/（数量）的估计- of-holes-X-ray）。定义了几种情况，其中X射线和钴-60伽马引起的影响差异预计很小。本文还描述了差异可能达到四倍的其他情况。 1.8 应该认识到，一般来说，无论是X射线测试仪还是钴-60伽马源都不会提供特定系统辐射环境的精确模拟。使用任何一种测试源都需要推断指定辐射环境的预期影响。在本指南中，我们讨论了X射线测试仪和钴-60伽马效应之间的差异。这一讨论应作为推断不同辐射环境预期影响问题的背景。然而，外推到预期真实环境的过程在别处处理 ( 1. , 2. ) . 2. 1.9 X的时间尺度- 射线辐照和测量可能与预期设备应用中的辐照时间有很大不同。给出了时间相关效应的信息。 1.10 还讨论了准直X射线束在晶片上所需辐照区域之外的可能横向扩展。 1.11 介绍了推荐的实验方法、剂量学和数据解释。 1.12 半导体器件的辐射测试可能会导致受辐照器件的电气参数严重退化，因此应将其视为破坏性测试。 1.13 以国际单位制表示的数值应视为标准值。本标准不包括其他计量单位。 1.14 本标准并非旨在解决与其使用相关的所有安全问题（如有）。本标准的用户有责任在使用前制定适当的安全、健康和环境实践，并确定监管限制的适用性。 1.15 本国际标准是根据世界贸易组织技术性贸易壁垒（TBT）委员会发布的《关于制定国际标准、指南和建议的原则的决定》中确立的国际公认标准化原则制定的。 ====意义和用途====== 4.1 许多空间、军事和核动力系统中使用的电子电路可能暴露于不同水平的电离辐射剂量。对于此类电路的设计和制造而言，必须有可用的测试方法，以确定此类系统中使用的组件的易损性或硬度（非易损性的测量）。 4.2 制造商目前正在销售具有保证硬度等级的半导体零件，军用规范系统正在扩展，以涵盖零件的硬度规范。 因此，需要测试方法和指南来标准化鉴定测试。 4.3 低能量的使用( ≈ 研究了10 keV）X射线源作为钴-60的替代物，用于微电子器件的电离辐射效应测试 ( 3. , 4. , 5. , 6. ) . 本指南的目的是在适当情况下为此类使用提供背景信息和指导。 注3: 钴-60 -电离辐射（“总剂量”）测试中最常用的电离辐射源是钴-60。能量为1.17和1.33 MeV的γ射线是钴-60发射的主要电离辐射。在使用钴-60源的暴露中，必须将试样封装在铅铝容器中，以将低能散射辐射引起的剂量增强效应降至最低（除非已证明这些效应可以忽略不计）。对于这种铅铝容器，至少为1。 需要在0.7至1.0 mm铝的内屏蔽周围使用5 mm的铅。（参见 8.2.2.2 和实践 E1249号 .) 4.4 X射线测试仪已被证明是一种有用的电离辐射效应测试工具，因为: 4.4.1 与大多数钴-60源相比，它提供了相对较高的剂量率，因此减少了测试时间。 4.4.2 辐射能量足够低，可以很容易地进行准直。因此，可以在晶片上辐照单个器件。 4.4.3 使用X射线辐射器比使用钴-60源更容易处理辐射安全问题。这是由于光子的能量相对较低，以及X射线源很容易关闭。 4.4.4 X射线设备的成本通常低于同类钴-60设备。 4.5 本指南中讨论的主要辐射诱导效应（能量沉积、吸收- 剂量增强，电子-空穴复合（见 附录X1 )当进行工艺更改以提高所生产零件的电离辐射硬度性能时，将保持大致相同。只要器件层的厚度和组成基本不变，情况就是这样。由于对过程变量不敏感，10 keV X射线测试仪有望成为过程改进和控制的优秀设备。 4.6 一些已发表的报告表明，使用剂量增强和电子-空穴复合校正成功地对X射线和钴-60γ辐照进行了相互比较。其他报告表明，目前对物理效应的理解不足以解释实验结果。因此，不能完全确定X射线和钴的影响之间的差异- 此时已充分了解60伽马辐射。（参见 8.2.1 和 附录X2 .) 由于可能无法理解辐射效应的光子能量依赖性，如果将10 keV X射线测试仪用于鉴定测试或批量验收测试，建议通过与钴-60γ辐照进行交叉检查来支持此类测试。有关此类比较的更多信息，请参阅 X2.2.4 . 4.7 由于10 keV光子的穿透力有限，电离辐射效应测试通常必须在未包装的设备上（例如，在晶圆级）或在未包装的设备上进行。

1.1 This guide covers recommended procedures for the use of X-ray testers (that is, sources with a photon spectrum having ≈ 10 keV mean photon energy and ≈ 50 keV maximum energy) in testing semiconductor discrete devices and integrated circuits for effects from ionizing radiation. 1.2 The X-ray tester may be appropriate for investigating the susceptibility of wafer level or delidded microelectronic devices to ionizing radiation effects. It is not appropriate for investigating other radiation-induced effects such as single-event effects (SEE) or effects due to displacement damage. 1.3 This guide focuses on radiation effects in metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) circuit elements, either designed (as in MOS transistors) or parasitic (as in parasitic MOS elements in bipolar transistors). 1.4 Information is given about appropriate comparison of ionizing radiation hardness results obtained with an X-ray tester to those results obtained with cobalt-60 gamma irradiation. Several differences in radiation-induced effects caused by differences in the photon energies of the X-ray and cobalt-60 gamma sources are evaluated. Quantitative estimates of the magnitude of these differences in effects, and other factors that should be considered in setting up test protocols, are presented. 1.5 If a 10-keV X-ray tester is to be used for qualification testing or lot acceptance testing, it is recommended that such tests be supported by cross checking with cobalt-60 gamma irradiations. 1.6 Comparisons of ionizing radiation hardness results obtained with an X-ray tester with results obtained with a LINAC, with protons, etc. are outside the scope of this guide. 1.7 Current understanding of the differences between the physical effects caused by X-ray and cobalt-60 gamma irradiations is used to provide an estimate of the ratio (number-of-holes-cobalt-60)/(number-of-holes-X-ray). Several cases are defined where the differences in the effects caused by X-rays and cobalt-60 gammas are expected to be small. Other cases where the differences could potentially be as great as a factor of four are described. 1.8 It should be recognized that neither X-ray testers nor cobalt-60 gamma sources will provide, in general, an accurate simulation of a specified system radiation environment. The use of either test source will require extrapolation to the effects to be expected from the specified radiation environment. In this guide, we discuss the differences between X-ray tester and cobalt-60 gamma effects. This discussion should be useful as background to the problem of extrapolation to effects expected from a different radiation environment. However, the process of extrapolation to the expected real environment is treated elsewhere ( 1 , 2 ) . 2 1.9 The time scale of an X-ray irradiation and measurement may be much different than the irradiation time in the expected device application. Information on time-dependent effects is given. 1.10 Possible lateral spreading of the collimated X-ray beam beyond the desired irradiated region on a wafer is also discussed. 1.11 Information is given about recommended experimental methodology, dosimetry, and data interpretation. 1.12 Radiation testing of semiconductor devices may produce severe degradation of the electrical parameters of irradiated devices and should therefore be considered a destructive test. 1.13 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard. 1.14 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 1.15 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee. ====== Significance And Use ====== 4.1 Electronic circuits used in many space, military and nuclear power systems may be exposed to various levels of ionizing radiation dose. It is essential for the design and fabrication of such circuits that test methods be available that can determine the vulnerability or hardness (measure of nonvulnerability) of components to be used in such systems. 4.2 Manufacturers are currently selling semiconductor parts with guaranteed hardness ratings, and the military specification system is being expanded to cover hardness specification for parts. Therefore test methods and guides are required to standardize qualification testing. 4.3 Use of low energy ( ≈ 10 keV) X-ray sources has been examined as an alternative to cobalt-60 for the ionizing radiation effects testing of microelectronic devices ( 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ) . The goal of this guide is to provide background information and guidance for such use where appropriate. Note 3: Cobalt-60 —The most commonly used source of ionizing radiation for ionizing radiation (“total dose”) testing is cobalt-60. Gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV are the primary ionizing radiation emitted by cobalt-60. In exposures using cobalt-60 sources, test specimens must be enclosed in a lead-aluminum container to minimize dose-enhancement effects caused by low-energy scattered radiation (unless it has been demonstrated that these effects are negligible). For this lead-aluminum container, a minimum of 1.5 mm of lead surrounding an inner shield of 0.7 to 1.0 mm of aluminum is required. (See 8.2.2.2 and Practice E1249 .) 4.4 The X-ray tester has proven to be a useful ionizing radiation effects testing tool because: 4.4.1 It offers a relatively high dose rate, in comparison to most cobalt-60 sources, thus offering reduced testing time. 4.4.2 The radiation is of sufficiently low energy that it can be readily collimated. As a result, it is possible to irradiate a single device on a wafer. 4.4.3 Radiation safety issues are more easily managed with an X-ray irradiator than with a cobalt-60 source. This is due both to the relatively low energy of the photons and due to the fact that the X-ray source can easily be turned off. 4.4.4 X-ray facilities are frequently less costly than comparable cobalt-60 facilities. 4.5 The principal radiation-induced effects discussed in this guide (energy deposition, absorbed-dose enhancement, electron-hole recombination) (see Appendix X1 ) will remain approximately the same when process changes are made to improve the performance of ionizing radiation hardness of a part that is being produced. This is the case as long as the thicknesses and compositions of the device layers are substantially unchanged. As a result of this insensitivity to process variables, a 10-keV X-ray tester is expected to be an excellent apparatus for process improvement and control. 4.6 Several published reports have indicated success in intercomparing X-ray and cobalt-60 gamma irradiations using corrections for dose enhancement and for electron-hole recombination. Other reports have indicated that the present understanding of the physical effects is not adequate to explain experimental results. As a result, it is not fully certain that the differences between the effects of X-ray and cobalt-60 gamma irradiation are adequately understood at this time. (See 8.2.1 and Appendix X2 .) Because of this possible failure of understanding of the photon energy dependence of radiation effects, if a 10-keV X-ray tester is to be used for qualification testing or lot acceptance testing, it is recommended that such tests should be supported by cross checking with cobalt-60 gamma irradiations. For additional information on such comparison, see X2.2.4 . 4.7 Because of the limited penetration of 10-keV photons, ionizing radiation effects testing must normally be performed on unpackaged devices (for example, at wafer level) or on delidded devices.